Jhana


Jhana meditation, sometimes referred to as samatha meditation, is a concentration practice in which one moves through various mind states, called "jhanas," in a progression that leads to deeper and deeper absorption.  The jhana states are sometimes referred to as "meditative absorptions," or simply "absorptions."  This practice is notoriously esoteric and difficult to understand for the lay practitioner.  Jhana meditation is the practice associated with "Right Concentration," which is the eighth branch of the traditional Buddhist Eightfold Noble Path.  

Method


The initial instructions for Jhana meditation are fairly straightforward.  After taking a traditional meditation posture, one chooses an object of concentration, often times the feeling of the breath flowing over the upper lip.  When the attention wanders away, the meditator simply brings it back to the object of concentration – in this case the sensation of the breath.  

One simply repeats this procedure, focusing the attention on the feeling of the breath on the upper lip, over and over again, reaching deeper levels of concentration.  In this process, the jhana states are said to arise.
 

The First Four Jhanas (The "Material Jhanas")
 

Each jhana has its own "feeling" and is a distinct state of absorption.  Traditionally, these states are deliniated by the presence or absence of what are called "jhana factors."  The jhana factors include:
 

  • vitakka: initial attention or the willful act of bringing the attention to the object

  • vicara: sustained attention, more or less uninterupted attention on the object

  • piti: a feeling of joy or happiness in the body/consciousness

  • sukha: bliss, or a more refined state of happiness than piti – sometimes thought of as "gentle contentment"

  • ekaggata: "one-pointedness of mind" – complete, uninteruped unification of mind on the meditative object

  • upekkha: equanimity or calmness within sensation


First Jhana: All jhana factors are present.  This is described as an excited and pleasant state.  Piti is said to be the primary marker of this state. 

Second Jhana: Piti, sukha, and ekaggata are present.  Sukha is said to be more prevalent than piti in the second jhana, and the experience begins to calm. 

Third Jhana: Sukha and ekaggata are present.  Piti disappears and this jhana is marked by a calm contentment.

Fourth Jhana: Ekaggata and upekkha are present.  Emotion disappears altogether and the mind is one-pointed and calm.  
 

The jhanas are said to be successive and one must "master" each jhana (holding the state continuously, sometimes for several hours) before moving on to the next.  In one sitting, the meditator has to enter the lower jhanas before reaching higher levels (i.e. you have to enter first jhana, then second jhana, to get to third jhana).  As one continues their practice, they are said to have the ability to move through each state more quickly. 


The Last 4 Jhanas (The "Immaterial Jhanas")


After a meditator has achieved the first four jhanas, they are sometimes led through a complex series of sequences in which they move through the first four jhanas using the breath as the object of meditation and then switch the object of meditation to certain elements of the body (there are 32 unique body parts that one must progress through) or kasinas (mental images of colored disks).

After completing this complex series of meditations, the meditator is ready to experience Jhanas 5-8, the "Immaterial Jhanas."
 

Fifth Jhana: The base of boundless space.

Sixth Jhana: The base of boundless consciousness.

Seventh Jhana: The base of nothingness.

Eighth Jhana: The base of neither perception nor non-perception. 
 

The jhana states are not always described in the same way which leads to a lot of confusion in this practice.  It is also not always easy for the meditator to recognize the jhana factors or what state they are in (i.e. "Am I experiencing piti or sukha?", etc.).  Even more so than in other practices, the specific instructions for jhana meditation will differ based on the teacher.  If a meditator is interested in this practice, they will likely need to seek our a teacher who is certified in a particular lineage.  

 

Resources


Print
Stephen Snyder and Tina Rasmussen, Practicing the Jhanas. Boston: Shambhala, 2009.
Richard Shankman, The Art and Skill of Buddhist Meditation. Oakland: New Harbinger, 2015.
Leigh Brasington, Right Concentration. Boston: Shambhala, 2015.
Bhante Gunaratana, Beyond Mindfulness in Plain English. Somerville: Wisdom Publications, 2009.

Audio/Video
Stephen Snyder and Tina Rasmussen on Jhana Meditation
Concentration as One Path of Meditation: Richard Shankman
Shane Wilson on Jhana Meditation
Leigh Brasington on the Jhanas
 

Vipassana “Mindfulness” Meditation


Vipassana, also often referred to as mindfulness or insight meditation, is a form of Buddhist meditation in which one strives to non-judgmentally observe their present moment experience.  This type of meditation is derived in large part from the Satipatthana Sutta, which is a discourse attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, The Buddha.  Right Mindfulness is the seventh branch of the traditional Buddhist Noble Eightfold Path.  
 

Method
 

To begin vipassana, the meditator takes a traditional posture, usually either a Burmese lotus, half lotus, or full lotus pose.  If these positions cause significant discomfort, the meditator can simply sit in a firm chair.  The most important part of any pose is to have a straight back and put the body in a "relaxed but attentive" position.  Posture affects the mind, and a position that is too relaxed or too stiff can cause difficulty.  

Once seated and settled, typical instructions are to begin by following the sensations relating to the breath.  One point of focus for attention is the sensation of air passing through the nostrils and on the lip as breath travels in and out of the nose.  Another potential point of focus is the sensation of the abdomen expanding and contracting with the breath.  

After spending some time following the breath, the goal is to open the awareness to all physical and mental phenomena that arise.  This includes physical sensations of sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell, and mental sensations of thought and emotion.  Thoughts and emotions are treated in the exact same way as any physical sensation.  For all phenomena that arise, vipassana instructions are be aware of it, note it, and then be open to what arises next.  The state reached using this technique is sometimes called "bare awareness."  

Some teachers use the practice of "labeling" phenomena as they arise.  For instance, when the meditator feels a tingle in their knee, they label the sensation "tingling" and move on.  When the sensation of the foot pressing against the floor presents itself, the meditator labels the sensation "pressure" and moves on.  The practice of labeling during vipassana is dependent on the teacher. Some teachers will also use guided meditations (see this example from Joseph Goldstein) in which they lead students through a "body scan," or even a "sensation scan" (i.e. in addition to physical "touch" sensations, this will include sounds, smells, tastes, visual phenomena, mental phenomena, etc.).  These guided meditations help the meditator realize how wide a variety of sensations are able to be experienced in any given moment by having them focus on each sensation separately.

Like many meditation practices, the exact instructions for vipassana often differ slightly based on the teacher. The goal that is generally trying to be achieved is "bare awareness of the present moment."


Analogies


The following are two popular illustrations of vipassana.  
 

Standing Behind the Waterfall:  One analogy that is often used to describe vipasanna is that of a waterfall.  In the analogy, the waterfall represents all mental and physical phenomena which are experienced.  The sensations of sight, sound, touch, taste, smell, thought, emotion, etc. are constantly streaming, constantly changing.  Normally we are "in the stream" (i.e. we don't notice the sensations; we, in a sense, "are" the sensations).  The goal of vipassana is to stand underneath and behind the waterfall, watching the stream of phenomena from a detached viewpoint.  This "detachment" or "distance" from the phenomena that arise is characteristic of vipassana mediation.  
 

Boats on a River:  Another analogy that has been used to describe vipassana in comparison to other meditation practices is that of "boats on a river."  In this analogy, the boats represent thoughts and sensations.  In some types of meditation (Centering Prayer, Mantram, etc.), the goal is to become a scuba diver and dive deep, to the bottom of the water.  In these types of meditation, when one realizes that they are caught up in a boat (i.e. a thought or sensation), they swim back down to the depths.  In vipassana, the goal of the scuba diver is to get just beneath the surface of the water and then turn back up, watching the boats as they pass.  Thus, in this form of meditation, you are not going "deep within yourself," but simply watching your experiences on a moment by moment basis as they pass.  
 

The Marks of Existence
 

Vipassana meditation is sometimes called Insight meditation, and one of the traditional aims of the practice is to gain "insight" into the fundamental nature of reality – sometimes referred to as the Three Marks of Existence.  The Three Fundamental Marks of Existence, according to Buddhist thought (found in the Dhammapada and elsewhere), are dukkha, anicca, and anatta.


Dukkha:  Dukkha is usually translated as suffering or unsatisfactoriness, and refers to the idea that life is not inherently satisfactory.  From Buddhist perspective, there is an element of dukkha in everything.  Dukkha is clearly seen in "bad events" – illness, death, etc. – but unsatisfactoriness is also seen as marking positive events, for they will soon pass.  More generally, it seems that we are constantly desiring things to make us happy, but when we get what we want, we aren't fully satisfied.  We go on wanting and craving.  Dukkha is also the First Noble Truth of Buddhism.


Anicca:  Anicca is usually translated as impermanence.  Nothing in life lasts indefinitely and all phenomena are in a constant state of flux.  Life itself is impermanent.  


Anatta:  Anatta is usually translated as "no-self" or egolessness.  This is perhaps one of the most controversial of Buddhist doctrines – the idea that there is no "self" – there simply is phenomena.  When phenomena become "bundled" we come under the illusion that we are a separate entity.  In vipassana, the high degree of focus on actual physical and mental phenomena can lead to the experience of "no-self."  It is debated whether the Buddhist doctrine of anatta is in conflict with Vedantin understandings of the Higher Self or if the traditions are using different (in fact opposite) language to point to the same reality. Models of the self are a matter of much discussion and debate within the contemplative traditions in general.


Through the practice of vipassana, the meditator is supposed to realize the Three Marks of Existence in their own experience.  


Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT)


Vipassana, probably more than any other meditative practice, has become unbundled from its religious structure and is often marketed as a therapeutic technique (helping with depression, anxiety, etc.) or as a way to reduce stress.   Psychological benefits of mindfulness practice are reported to include:
 

  • Reduced rumination

  • Reduced symptoms of depression and anxiety

  • Stress reduction

  • Increase in working memory

  • Increased focus

  • Less emotional reactivity

  • Improved social relationships


Whether it is legitimate to unbundle a meditation technique from its religious context and use the technique for other purposes/ends than originally intended is a matter of debate within the tradition. See the American Mindfulness Research Association for more on MBCT and MBSR.  

 

Metta “Lovingkindness” Meditation


Metta, sometimes referred to as lovingkindness meditation (metta simply means "lovingkindness"), is a distinct form of Buddhist practice.  By practicing metta meditation, one hopes to cultivate an attitude of lovingkindness first toward themselves, and then outwards, toward other people.  This form of meditation is sometimes associated with Right Effort, the sixth branch of the traditional Buddhist Noble Eightfold Path. 
 

Method
 

There are many different ways to practice lovingkindness meditation.  Oftentimes metta is performed as a guided meditation, with a "script" from either a teacher or a printed resource.  One of the most common forms that these guided meditations take is a progression from a lovingkindness wish for oneself, to a lovingkindness wish for another person, and finally to a lovingkindness wish for a particular group (oftentimes an “enemy” or group of people with whom you may have conflict) or the whole world.  

In the preface to Thomas Merton's Contemplative Prayer, Thich Nhat Hanh gives a traditional example of this type of prayer:
 

"May I be peaceful, happy, and light in body and spirit.
May he/she be peaceful, happy, and light in body and spirit.
May they be peaceful happy, and light in body and spirit."

"May I be free from injury.  May I live in safety. 
May he/she be free from injury.  May he/she live in safety.
May they be free from injury.  May they live in safety."

"May I be free from disturbance, fear, anxiety, and worry.
May he/she be free from disturbance, fear, anxiety, and worry.
May they be free from disturbance, fear, anxiety, and worry."


Many examples of guided metta meditations are available online.  



Right Effort
 

In Buddhist thought, part of the spiritual path is displaying "right effort," or the use of the will to develop wholesome states of mind.  Lovingkindness meditation is often associated with Right Effort, as it involves a conscious use of the will aimed at cultivating a positive state.

Traditionally, right effort is directed toward four goals:
 

  • To prevent the arising of unarisen unwholesome states

  • To abandon unwholesome states that have already arisen

  • To arouse wholesome states that have not yet arisen

  • To maintain and perfect wholesome states already arisen


In Lovingkindness meditation, the focus is on the final two of these goals, arousing and maintaining wholesome states of mind.  

 

 

 

Resources



Print
Various, Metta: The Practice of Lovingkindness. New York: Windhorse Publications, 2004.
Acariya Buddharakkhita, Meta: Philosophy and Practice of Universal Love. Buddhist Publication Society, 1989.
Tulku Thondup, The Heart of Unconditional Love. Boston: Shambhala, 2015.
Sharon Salzberg, Lovingkindness. Boston: Shambhala, 1995.
Bhikkhu Bodhi, The Noble Eightfold Path. Onalaska: Pariyatti, 1984.

Audio/Video
Guided Lovingkindness Meditation
Guided Metta
Bhante Vimalaramsi Explains Metta Meditation

Resources


Print
Bhante Gunaratana, Mindfulness in Plain English. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2011.
Joseph Goldstein, Mindfulness. Boulder: Sounds True, 2013.
Bhikkhu Bodhi, The Noble Eightfold Path. Onalaska: Pariyatti, 1984.
Thich Nhat Hanh, The Miracle of Mindfulness. Boston: Beacon Press, 1975.
Jon Kabat-Zinn, Wherever You Go, There You Are: Mindfulness Meditation in Everyday Life. New York: Hyperion, 1994.
Dan Harris, 10% Happier. New York: HarperCollins, 2014.

Audio/Video
Mindfulness: What it Is and What it Isn’t – Joseph Goldstein
The Three Marks of Existence
60 Minutes on Mindfulness
Mindfulness Meditation and the Brain
Mindfulness is a Superpower

Kabbalah

Kabbalah, the mystical strand within Judaism, is arguably the most esoteric of the world's major contemplative traditions.  While visions, the attainment of secret wisdom and powers, numerology, the practice of decoding texts to predict future events, etc. have a limited place on the fringes in most schools of mysticism, in Kabbalah these eccentricities are more front and center.  The philosophy and forms of spirituality that have developed within Kabbalah are largely dependent on a group of writings called The Zohar, the movement's fundamental text. 


The Zohar


The Zohar is an extremely large collection of writings that most likely originated in the 13th Century with a Spanish Jewish mystic named Moses de Leon.  Although Moses claimed to be simply transmitting ancient texts (traditionally the bulk of the Zohar is attributed to a 2nd Century Rabbi – Simon bar Yochai – with some portions being attributed to Abraham or even Adam), most scholars believe that Moses de Leon himself, perhaps with a group of other kabbalists, authored most of the writings while drawing on earlier texts.  The Zohar is primarily an imaginative story which uses the text of Torah as a springboard; in this regard it shares similarities with a method of Jewish commentary on Scripture called midrash.  A primary focus of the Zohar is the Sefirot.  


The Sefirot


The Sefirot are conceptualized as a description of the inner workings of God – a sort of "Divine map" that portrays various aspects of God's nature and, therefore, the nature of existence.  The entire schema is often referred to as the Tree of Life, and consists of 10 Sefirot.  

The Sefirot include:
 

  • Keter – "crown" or "source," represents the unknowable essence of God

  • Chochmah – "wisdom," represents the knowledge of God

  • Binah – "understanding" or "empathy," represents divine motherly wisdom

  • Chesed – "love" or "mercy," represents the compassion of God

  • Gvurah – "judgment," represents the divine justice

  • Tiferet – "beauty" or "harmony," represents the balance of love and justice

  • Netzach – "creativity," represents the creative power of God

  • Hod – "prophecy," represents creativity made concrete

  • Yesod – "reproductive energy" or "foundation," the will of God to create

  • Malchut – "kingdom," represents the material world


Meditative Practice: The Divine Names and the Hebrew Alphabet


Various methods of meditation have been used within the Kabbalistic tradition.  Although no one single method can be said to be "normative," one of the most popular forms of meditation focuses on a Divine Name and/or a sequence of Hebrew letters.  

The use of various Divine Names for meditation is strikingly similar to the Sufi concept of Dhikr.  In this method, one chooses a name of God that is appropriate to their situation.  A Kabbalist might use one of a variety of names for God in the Hebrew Scriptures such as Adonai ("Absolute Lordship"), El Shaddai ("The Almighty"), Ehyeh Asher Ehyeh ("I Am that I Am"), etc.  The name is then repeated as a mantra, sometimes accompanied by various breathing techniques.  The interpretations of what happens during this type of meditation range from stilling the mind or "moving beyond thought to the experience of God" (i.e. similar to Centering Prayer, the Buddhist concept of Samadhi, etc.) to the acquisition of special powers.  Kabbalists tend to be more prone to assigning, for lack of a better term, "magical powers" to the Divine Names or symbols than those from other contemplative faiths.  

A unique meditative technique to Kabbalah is the use of Hebrew alphabetical characters as objects of concentration.  In Kabbalistic cosmology, God creates the universe by combining various Hebrew letters.  To create a tree, He simply combines the letters that spell "tree" in Hebrew; to create the sky, He combines the letters that spell "sky," etc.  Thus it is thought that combining certain Hebrew characters as objects for meditation will produce different effects for the practitioner.  


Devekut


One concept that potentially unites various practices in the Jewish mystical tradition is that of Devekut – "clinging to God."  Through meditative practices, Torah study, following the Commandments, and the performance of good works, one seeks to join their soul to God's, or "cling to" God, both in times of prayer and in daily life.   

 

Resources

Print
Daniel Matt, The Essential Kabbalah: The Heart of Jewish Mysticism. San Francisco: Harper Collins, 2006.
Elizabeth Clare, Kabbalah. Gardiner: Summit Press, 1997.
Rav P. S. Berg, The Essential Zohar. New York: Three Rivers, 2002.

Audio/Video
Gnosis: Secrets of the Kabbalah