The Jain Contemplative Tradition

Jainism is a Sramana (“striver”) movement, originating in India at roughly the same time as the origins of Buddhism (5th Century BCE).  Sramana movements are schools of Indian religious thought which are considered nastika – ”non-orthodox” or not explicitly based on the Vedas.

Orthodox Jainas trace their spiritual lineage to a teacher referred to as Mahavira, who is considered to be the most recent Tirthankara or “ford-maker.”  Tirthankaras are believed to teach a path – creating a ford – “to cross the ocean of samsara.”  Mahavira is seen as teaching the same truths as Tirthankaras of ages past.

Various biographies of Mahavira exist between the two primary Jain sects – the Svetambaras (White(cotton)-clad) and the Digambaras (Sky-clad).  These biographies differ on several points, notably on whether Mahavira wore clothing as a monk or not (Svetambaras believe that Mahavira wore a monk’s robe, while Digambaras believe he remained nude – the owning of clothing being seen as a violation of Jain vows).  In general outline, in primary Jain texts Mahavira is thought to have been born under miraculous circumstances, including a series of dreams given to his mother, a “change of womb” so that he could be born in the ksatriya/warrior caste, and the attendance of various gods to celebrate his birth. After fulfilling the duties of a householder, Mahavira became a renunciate or monk in young adulthood.  During his time as a monk, Jain texts record Mahavira’s encounters with various contemporaries as well his austerities and success in meditative practice.  Mahavira’s teaching in the tradition’s sutras is varied, the texts including expositions of the 5 Jain vows, virtue/vice lists, Jain philosophical understandings, stories for edification, and stresses on personal responsibility and attaining freedom from desire.  Jainas believe that, after twelve years as a renunciate, Mahavira attained Enlightenment or Kevalajnana.  In the Jain understanding, this state includes the attainment of omniscient knowledge (Kevala – complete/supreme, Jnana – knowledge/wisdom).  

“The Venerable One lived, except in the rainy season, all the eight months of summer and winter, in villages only a single night, in towns only five nights; he was indifferent alike to the smell of ordure and of sandal, to straw and jewels, dirt and gold, pleasure and pain, attached neither to this world nor to that beyond, desiring neither life nor death, arrived at the other shore of the samsara, and he exerted himself for the suppression of the defilement of Karman…

During the thirteenth year, in the second month of summer, in the fourth fortnight…under a Sal tree, when the moon was in conjunction with the asterism Uttaraphalguni, (the Venerable One) in a squatting position with joined heels, exposing himself to the heat of the sun, after fasting two and a half days without drinking water, being engaged in deep meditation, reached the highest knowledge and intuition, called Kevala, which is infinite, supreme, unobstructed, unimpeded, complete, and full.”

One who attains full enlightenment from a Jain perspective is referred to as a Jina or conqueror.  

After his Enlightenment/Kevalajnana experience, Mahavira taught his disciples, and through his disciples, the wider community, his teachings becoming the basis of the earliest Jaina scriptures.  The Jaina community was at this time divided into men and women, and lay vs. monastic (“mendicant”).  Mahavira is believed to have passed into Nirvana at age 72.  As in other traditions, depictions of Mahavira throughout Jain texts range from more supernatural and idealistic to more humanly descriptions.  Jainas look to Mahavira as the formal re-founder of their faith in the modern era, and communally celebrate the “five auspicious moments” of Mahavira’s life – conception, birth, renunciation, enlightenment, and attainment of nirvana.  

During Mahavira’s post-kevalajnana existence, and after his death, Jainas believe that his teaching was preserved and recorded by his earliest disciples.  It is unclear what texts were produced during this time.  After a long history of oral and textual transmission, the current Canon of texts for the largest sect of Jainism (the Svetambaras) was put into its final form at the council of Valabhi in the 5th Century CE. Over the course of transmission, portions (specifically, the “Purvas”) of what are now considered to be canonical texts were completely lost.  The current Svetambara Canon consists of the Purvas (“Old Texts”, all extinct), the Angas (“Limbs”), and the Angabahya (“Subsidiary Texts,” thought to originate soon after Mahavira’s original disciples).  Digambaras were geographically separated from the primary Jain community at an early date (ca. 3rd-4th Century BCE) and produced their own unique set of Scriptures.  Both the Svetambaras and Digambaras also produced an enormous amount of post-canonical literature, considered “secondary canons,” which also function, effectively, as Scripture.  The secondary texts are broadly grouped into four categories –  the Prathamanuyoga (“Primary Expositions”), the Karananuyoga (“Expositions on Technical Matters” such as Jaina cosmology), the Carananuyoga (“Expositions on Discipline” for both monks and lay persons), and the Dravyanuyoga (“Substance/Existent” – expositions on Jaina ontology and philosophy).  In addition to these secondary texts, the writings of other teachers (“Acaryas”) of sufficient antiquity from within the tradition can also, at times, be treated as “Scriptural texts.” “Scripture”/Agama is a flexible concept within the Jain Tradition, and authority is often found in contemporary monastic teachers who are tasked with interpreting the textual tradition for the community.  

The Jaina Path 

In the Jaina philosophical understanding, the individual Soul or Jiva is bound by karmic matter (Jains, uniquely, envision karma as actual physical matter), which keeps it entangled in the cycle of samsara.  The soul must eventually be purified of all karmic matter in order to achieve nirvana.  This process of purification and the attainment of nirvana is what constitutes the goal of the Jaina religious Path.

In order to achieve this goal, Jains refrain from unethical behavior – or behavior inconducive to spiritual growth – primarily as mediated by the 5 Vows.  

The Five Jaina Vows are Ahimsa (non-harm), Staya (abstention from lying), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahma (abstention from illicit sexual activity), and Aparigraha (non-attachment or non-possession).

Ahimsa:  Ahimsa is the first and primary Jain vow.  Jainas vow to refrain from killing or harming any living being or entity, including animals, plants, and even microscopic life.  For this reason, some Jain mendicants wear face masks and sweep the ground in front of them to avoid inhaling, or stepping on, small forms of life.  Jains are vegetarians and even avoid actions such as eating root vegetables as uprooting kills the plant.  The vow of ahimsa also entails refraining from any thought or speech which may lead to harming another being in mental ways.  Any form of himsa – harm – is seen as not only affecting the recipient, but also the actor himself, as he acquires negative karmic matter.  Ahimsa – non-harm – can be thought of as the primary lens through which to view Jain ethics, other precepts being mere functions of this core vow.    

Staya:  The second Jain vow is Staya – “truth,” or abstention from lying.  A Jain is to speak carefully, with deliberation, and only the truth.  If a situation arises where speaking the truth may cause himsa/harm, a Jain is to refrain from speech.  As in the vow of ahimsa, the vow of staya includes renouncing mental attitudes (anger, greed, fear, etc.) which may lead one to speak untruth.  

Asteya:  The third Jain vow is Asteya – non-stealing or refraining from taking that which is not given.  A Jain monk is only to live in an area which is given to him by his community, and to eat only food which is freely given.  The vow of asteya is highly interconnected with the vow of aparigraha – non-attachment or non-possession.  

Brahma:  In the vow of Brahma, a monk renounces sexual pleasure and remains celibate.  Other “pleasurable experiences” such as highly seasoned food and alcohol are also refrained from as they may lead to attachment.  In each category, lay vows are softened versions of full monastic vows.  In the case of the vow of brahma, a lay Jain should only express sexuality within marriage. 

Aparigraha: The final Jain vow is Aparigraha – non-attachment or non-possession.  A monk is to be unattached to all sensory phenomena, not personally desiring or craving pleasant sounds, colors, smells, tastes, or feelings.  As part of this vow, a monastic is also to renounce ownership of all possessions.  

The 5 Vows of Jainism are identical to the “abstentions” of the Yogic tradition.  

In addition to the Five Vows, other practices have been developed within the Jain tradition in order to support an aspirant moving toward kevalajnana.  Lay ritual practices include desavakasika (remaining within a given geographical area so as to minimize harm done to other beings by travel), Samayika (“Equanimity,” formal meditative practice), fasting, almsgiving to the monastic community, and committing to sallekhanavrata – the decision, when the time is right, to fast and perform meditative practice unto death.  Mendicants/monks also engage in other regular practices such as veneration of the Tirthankaras and other holy teachers, confession/expiation of transgressions, and “abandonment of the body” (standing or sitting motionless for various periods of time) as well as other practices of austerity.  Practices of austerity involving physical restraint or hardship are referred to as Tapas and are emphasized within the tradition.  

In all action, Jain aspirants are to cultivate continuous awareness of their own behavior, being careful and deliberate to live in accordance with their vows at all times.  

By adhering to the Five Vows and engaging in other spiritual practice, Jains envision the soul climbing through multiple rungs (Gunasthana) or stages of development toward the purified self.  

In the Jain schematic, the soul begins in a state of ignorance and climbs through milestones such as ksayopasama-labdhi (an early state in which many obscuring karmas are temporarily suppressed), desana-labdhi (a “longing” for spiritual instruction or teaching), samyak-darsana (the state in which the soul first catches a glimpse of its true nature), etc. 

As a soul progresses through the gunasthana, it experiences various fruits or “signs of awakening” such as disidentification with all things (the body, possessions, temporary psychological states, etc.) exterior to the pure self, the ability to overcome ingrained negative tendencies, an experience of ease (“prasama”) with oneself, an experience of kinship with all fellow beings / the desire to lead all towards liberation/kevalajnana/moksha, knowledge, and the quality of selfless love – especially as directed toward the mendicant community.  As it becomes more purified, the soul is also envisaged as becoming progressively freed from the kasayas/”passions” (attachment/desire or aversion/hatred) until it finally reaches vitaraga/passionlessness – a state in which, in the Jain philosophical understanding, no karmic matter can cling.  An aspirant may climb through the gunasthana until reaching the state of Arhat (saint) or Jina.  Upon death, a Jina is expected to attain Nirvana/Moksha – which cannot be fully conceptualized. 

The Jaina Path is also sometimes schematized or understood within the categories of Right Knowledge, Right Faith, and Right Conduct. 

For more on Samayika, the primary Jain meditative practice, click here.