The Mahayana Buddhist Contemplative Tradition
In the centuries following the ministry of Siddhartha Gautama, Buddhism would spread throughout India and beyond. During this expansion, some Buddhist communities sought to preserve and stay true to the earliest texts and traditions available, while other communities showed an openness to continued development including the creation of new texts and creative synthesis with other religious traditions and philosophies. These more flexible strands of the faith would eventually be broadly grouped under the name Mahayana – the “Great Vehicle.”
It is unclear exactly how the Mahayana movement began. There is no one name or school from which the Mahayana seems to have sprouted. Rather, sometime around the turn of the First Millenium, various Buddhist groups began to emerge in India, each associated with one or more new sets of Scriptures, most often produced anonymously. Broadly, those who accepted at least some element of these newly developed Scriptures as authoritative teaching would eventually be considered Mahayanists. Justifications for the creation of new texts included the belief that new teachings were further developments of the Buddha’s own dharma which his original followers had not yet been prepared for (sometimes thought of as originally being taught by the Buddha to a select group of disciples and passed down separately from mainstream teaching), and/or the belief that the Buddha was providing ongoing revelation through visionary or meditative experience. Mahayanists typically believe that these new texts and teachings constitute a “second turning of the wheel of dharma” – and in some sense supersede earlier Buddhist thought. Many of these early Mahayana texts are now reflected in what has come to be known as the Mahayana Sutras, including an important class of texts referred to as the Perfection of Wisdom Literature. Well-known early Mahayana texts include the Lotus Sutra, Heart Sutra, and Diamond Sutra. The Awakening of Faith, written by Asvaghosa, is also an important exposition of early Mahayana thought.
The Mahayana Sutras are not systematic, and indeed seem to contain many competing or even contradictory ideas. Nevertheless, the Sutras do display certain broad themes which have been influential in the ongoing development of many Mahayana Buddhist schools.
Most prominently, Mahayana texts tend to idealize the path of the Bodhisattva, so much so that Mahayana Buddhism was originally referred to simply as Bodhisattvayana – “the Path of the Bodhisattva.” In Mahayana Buddhist thought, a Bodhisattva is one who first attains enlightenment for themselves, and then, motivated by compassion (karuna), commits to being reborn in the world until each sentient being has reached their spiritual end. A Bodhisattva will engage in suffering with the world, for the sake of the world, until all have reached nirvana. In some Mahayana texts a Bodhisattva is to practice the Six Perfections – Generosity (dana), Morality (sila), Patience (ksanti), Courage (virya), Meditation (samadhi), and Wisdom (pranja) – which map roughly onto the Noble Eightfold Path, each schema containing a moral, meditative, and wisdom element. A somewhat standardized “progression of a bodhisattva” also emerged in the tradition, and begins with the arising of bodhicitta – the thought/decision to become a buddha and commit to the bodhisattva path. The Bodhisattva ideal continues to be a core concept in nearly all Mahayanist schools.
Other major philosophical developments in the Mahayana Sutras include Upaya/Skillful Means, an emphasis on Sunyata/Emptiness, a focus on “this-world” interpretations of Nirvana, the doctrine of Trikaya or the Three Bodies of the Buddha, the doctrine of Tathagatagarbha, and in general more positive and creative philosophical understandings of Ultimate Reality and doctrine in comparison to the Theravada tradition, which generally discourages speculation beyond the “bare data” of first hand experience.
Upaya/Skillful Means: The doctrine of Upaya, or Skillful Means, refers to the idea that dharma teaching can take on an almost infinite variety of forms, each teaching designed to lead unique individuals, with their unique temperaments, toward enlightenment in their own way. In the influential Lotus Sutra, Upaya/Skillful Means is famously likened to water, a man saving his children from a burning house by luring them with different objects, as well as other images suggesting using various means to achieve a desired end:
“I knew that the natures and desires of living beings were not the same. As their natures and desires were not the same, I taught the Dharma in various ways. I used the power of skillful means to teach the Dharma in various ways…Good sons, the Dharma is like water that washes away dirt. Just as the water in a well, a pond, a stream, a river, a valley, a ditch, or a great sea is equally effective in washing away all kinds of dirt, so Dharma water effectively washes away the filth that afflicts living beings. Good sons, the nature of water is the same, but a stream, a river, a well, a pond, a valley stream, a ditch, and a great sea are different from each other. The nature of the Dharma is like this.”
“‘This,’ he said, ‘Is a dreadful place; how much more so with this blazing fire!’ But the children didn’t understand. Though they heard their father’s warnings, they remained absorbed in their games…Then he considered devising some skillful means, and said to his children: “I have many kinds of rare, attractive playthings – wonderful, treasured carriages. Goat carriages and deer carriages, and carriages with big oxen are now outside the gate. Go out and see them!’… Then the children, ecstatic with joy, mounted the treasured carriages and rode around in every direction, playing joyfully, freely, and without hindrance… If there are living beings who do not understand the roots of suffering, who are deeply attached to the causes of suffering, and are unable to give them up, even for a moment, for their sake the Buddha uses skillful means to teach the Way.”
Teachings are also sometimes thought of as valid even if provisional, or “lesser,” as long as they are being used to move an individual toward greater truth. The Mahayana is often presented as one vehicle/way, but this one vehicle/way is the vehicle of infinite variety.
Sunyata/Emptiness: Although “emptiness” is an important concept in the Theravada Tradition, it is emphasized even more strongly in the Mahayana. The doctrine of Sunyata/Emptiness is, however, interpreted in a wide variety of ways by various Mahayana schools. Even as the nature of Sunyata is widely debated, the emptiness of the self (perhaps best thought of as “personality” within Buddhist traditions) and the emptiness of all phenomena are language and concepts which continue to shape Mahayana thought strongly. Passages from the Heart Sutra are popular texts and objects of commentary regarding the nature of Sunyata:
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“Form is emptiness, emptiness is form; emptiness is not other than form, form too is not other than emptiness. Likewise, feelings, perceptions, mental formations, and consciousness are all empty. Therefore, Shariputra, all phenomena are emptiness; they are without defining characteristics; they are not born, they do not cease; they are not defiled, they are not undefiled; they are not deficient, and they are not complete.”
Emptiness remains a flexible concept within the tradition.
Focus on “This-World” Interpretations of Nirvana: Like Sunyata/Emptiness, Nirvana is also a flexible concept in both the Mahayana and Theravada Traditions. In Theravada Buddhism, emphasis is typically put on a “final release” conception of Nirvana and Nirvana is often conceptualized as the antithesis of Samsara. In the Mahayana, emphasis is typically placed on “this-world” conceptions of Nirvana. This is sometimes spoken of using the language “Nirvana and Samsara are One.” On this view, it is a certain understanding and way of engaging the world which can change our present experience into Nirvana. In both the Theravada and Mahayana Traditions, the concept of Nirvana continues to be interpreted in many interrelated ways. The image of a multifaceted diamond which looks different depending on which angle one holds it at is sometimes used as a model for understanding doctrines such as Nirvana and Enlightenment.
Trikaya: The Trikaya, or Three Bodies of the Buddha, is an important doctrine developed in Mahayana texts in that it enables the belief that the Buddha (however that person/idea is defined) “still exists” outside the historical personage of Siddhartha Gautama. In the doctrine of Trikaya, the Buddha has three bodies – nirmanakaya (the earthly, human body of the historical Siddhartha, and conceivably of other historical Buddhas), sambhogakaya (a spiritual body, existing in a Mahayana conception of a “heavenly realm”), and dharmakaya (the Buddha as identical with Ultimate Truth/Reality/Being). The structure of the Trikaya allows for the notion of ongoing revelation and the continued development of Mahayana schools/texts/traditions in novel ways. In general, “The Buddha” becomes further removed from the historical Siddhartha, and closer to an ahistorical Transcendent Ideal in Mahayana Buddhism.
Tathagatagarbha/Buddha-Womb/Buddha Nature: Another important doctrinal development in the Mahayana Sutras is that of the Tathagata-Garbha or “Buddha-Womb.” In some texts, the Tathagatagarbha is seen as inherent in each individual, and represents either our potential to become a Buddha, or our already inherent Buddha Nature, which only needs to be realized. The relationship between Buddha-Womb/Buddha Nature and “Emptiness” is a tension in the tradition, as is the relationship between Buddha-Womb/Buddha Nature and the idea of an Atman/true Self as developed in Vedanta (as the doctrine of Atman is seemingly rejected by most Buddhist schools, but strikingly similar to some presentations of Buddha Nature). The Zen school draws heavily from Tathagatagarbha doctrine.
Suchness/Dharmakaya/Positive Philosophy–Theology: Similar to frameworks in other world contemplative traditions, some Mahayana philosophy–theology posits an absolute Ground of Being, beyond attributes, which underlies existence. In the Mahayana Tradition, this Ground of Being is often referred to as Bhutatathata – Suchness of Existence – or simply as Tathata – Suchness. When Suchness manifests itself, it becomes “knowable,” and is referred to in the tradition by many names, most popularly as Dharmakaya – especially when seen as the object of religious consciousness. It is not always clear in Mahayana texts whether various other terms implying an “Absolute” including Dharmakaya, Buddha-Nature, Emptiness, Voidness, etc. are considered qualified manifestations of Suchness or are seen as identical with Suchness Itself. Nevertheless, attempts at creating positive philosophical–theological constructs to describe Ultimate Reality is a feature of the Mahayana in contrast to the Theravada Tradition – which typically focuses on the bare empirical data of firsthand experience and discourages abstract speculative philosophy.
Well-known early and modern schools/philosophical outlooks in Mahayana Buddhism include Madhyamaka, Yogacara, Chan/Zen, Tiantai, Pure Land, and Vajrayana, although this represents only a small subset of traditions considered “Mahayana.”
Mahayana Buddhism has flowered in an astounding variety of ways, and will likely continue to display tremendous diversity due to the flexibility allowed for by core ideas in the Mahayana Sutras.